Synthesis, structures, cellular uptake and apoptosis-inducing properties of highly cytotoxic ruthenium-Norharman complexes

Abstract

Three novel Ru(II) complexes of the general formula [Ru(N–N)₂(Norharman)₂](SO₃CF₃)₂, where N–N = 2,2′-bipyridine (bpy, 1), 1,10-phenanthroline (phen, 2), 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (DIP, 3) and Norharman (9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole) is a naturally occurring β-carboline alkaloid, have been synthesized and characterized. The molecular structures of 1 and 2 have been determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. The cellular uptake efficiencies, in vitro cytotoxicities and apoptosis-inducing properties of these complexes have been extensively explored. Notably, 1–3 exhibit potent antiproliferative activities against a panel of human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values lower than those of cisplatin. Further studies show that 1–3 can cause cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase and induce apoptosis through mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In vitro DNA binding studies have also been conducted to provide information about the possible mechanism of action.